General Medical Officer (GMO) Manual: Clinical Section
Ocular Emergencies
Department of the Navy
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
This section does not attempt to duplicate the material in the
references listed at the end of this section. Rather, it outlines special considerations
in the management of several ocular emergencies by the operational medical officer.
Understandably, all recommended treatments may not be possible in some locations.
Frequently this occurs in a remote area where immediate consultation or MEDEVAC is an
impossibility. Purchase and use of one or both of the listed texts is strongly
recommended. The first reference is a particularly good practical guide. Both should be
consulted for detailed information on evaluation techniques and specific treatment
regimes.
Visual acuity should be obtained before initiating treatment in all
ocular conditions exceptchemical burns where irrigation must be started immediately.
General
History
The ocular history should include date and time of onset of symptoms, any
precipitating events, any past eye surgeries or disease, use of corrective lenses, and any
associated symptoms.
Ocular exam
Visual acuity
If a Snellen chart is not available, use a pocket-sized near vision card, or any other
printed material (i.e., newspaper). The patient should wear their glasses for this exam.
If the patient wears corrective lenses and they are unavailable have them look with one
eye at a time through a pinhole (made by sticking a pin or needle through a 3 x 5 card).
The pinhole effect serves to eliminate most of the optical aberrations of a patients
refractive error, thereby giving the examiner a reasonable estimate of the patients
visual potential even if their glasses or contact lenses are not available.
Pupil exam
To rule out afferent pupillary defect, perform the swinging flashlight test by moving the
light back and forth from one eye to the other, pausing at each eye for a couple of
seconds (use the count of one, one thousand etc.) to observe the pupil. In the normal
exam, the illuminated pupil should constrict and then show some slight enlargement. Any
asymmetry between the eyes in constriction or escape constitutes a relative afferent
pupillary defect.
Ocular motility
Up, down, left, right, and 45 degrees between each direction (gaze up and out, gaze up and
in, etc.)
Assess visual fields by confrontation
Sit facing the patient, with the patient and yourself covering opposite eyes
(patients left eye, examiners right eye). You should hold up fingers from each
hand and have the patient count the total. Repeat in different meridians.
External and anterior segment exam
-
If a penlight is available, check for conjunctival injection or blanching, corneal
opacities, and anterior chamber depth.
-
If a slit lamp is available, examine the lids, lashes, conjunctiva, cornea, anterior
chamber, iris, and lens.
Fundus exam
If this exam is difficult, dilate the pupil with Tropicamide 1%, 1 gtt. Neosynephrine
2.5%, 1 gtt can be used in addition to Tropicamide to facilitate pupil dilation.
If a corneal laceration or a post-surgical wound leak is suspected, perform a Seidel
test by touching a fluorescein strip, moistened with topical anesthetic, directly to the
area of suspected perforation.
-
When viewed with a white light, a leak of aqueous will appear as a greenish-yellow
stream flanked by dark orange or blackish nonfluorescing dye.
-
When viewed with a Woods Lamp or the blue beam of a slit lamp, a leak will appear dark,
with greenish-yellow staining on either side.
Specific Conditions
Ruptured globe
Etiology
Signs and symptoms.
In some cases, the rupture site may not be readily apparent. A high index of suspicion
must be maintained in evaluation of ocular trauma.
-
Conjunctival edema, chemosis, or hemorrhage.
-
Hyphema.
-
Limitation of extraocular motility.
-
Obvious rupture of cornea or sclera.
-
Uveal tissue (iris, ciliary body) exposed or prolapsed.
Management
-
Avoid direct pressure to the globe at all times.
-
Tetanus toxoid (0.5 cc IM) if not up to date.
-
Parenteral broad spectrum antibiotics (Cefazolin 1 g IV q8h and
Gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg
loading then 1 mg/kg q8h). Do not use any topical medicines in a potentially ruptured
globe.
-
Protect traumatized eye with a Fox shield. If no aluminum shields are available, the
bottom half of a Styrofoam cup can be taped in place over the eye.
-
Urgent MEDEVAC - surgical repair should be accomplished as soon as possible, and
not later than 24 hours from the time of trauma.
-
Consider mild analgesics and
antiemetics as needed to avoid Valsalva maneuvers.
-
Keep patient NPO (nothing by mouth), if possible.
-
Bed rest, use a mild sedative if necessary.
-
If an intraocular foreign body is suspected, the patient will eventually need x-rays and
an orbital computed tomography (CT) with coronal sections. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) should be avoided due to the high probability that the foreign body may have
magnetic properties.
Chemical Burns
Etiology: chemical exposure of eye
Signs and symptoms
-
Corneal epithelial defects or opacification
-
Injection or blanching.
-
Chemosis (conjunctival edema)
-
Any of the above signs may be associated with pain, tearing, and photophobia
Management
-
Do not waste time taking a detailed history or performing an eye exam. Begin immediate,
copious irrigation with at least 2 liters of eyewash, normal saline, water, (whichever is
fastest), for a period of more than 30 minutes. Use a paperclip to roll out (evert) the
upper and lower lid so as to irrigate any chemical or particulate matter that may be
trapped in the fornices. A dampened Q-tip (cotton-tipped applicator) can be used to remove
small foreign bodies and/or particulate matter.
-
Five minutes after stopping irrigation check the pH of the inferior cul-de-sac. Continue
irrigation until the pH is neutralized at 7.0. (pH papers = NSN 6640-00-442-9005, but a
urine dip stick will work).
-
Topical anesthesia or lid retractors may be necessary (paper clips can be opened into an
elongated S shape, with will suffice for lid retractors).
-
A commercially available irrigation kit (Eye Irrigatorä ,
FSN 6515-01-458-2634) is available to facilitate irrigation of the eye and clear the
fornices. It is important to fully irrigate the fornicies because these can trap and
harbor residual chemicals.
-
After the pH is neutral, cycloplege with Scopolamine 0.25% 1 gtt, antibiotic ointment,
pressure patch for 24 hours, and oral pain medications as needed.
Types of chemical injury
Management
-
Topical antibiotics (Sulfacetamide, Erythromycin or Ciprofloxacin, 1 gtt TID.).
-
Cycloplegia (Cyclogyl 1% QID, Scopolamine 0.25% TID).
-
Oral analgesics.
-
Urgently MEDEVAC the patient if blanching and/or corneal opacification is present.
Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
(CRAO)
Etiology
Signs and symptoms
-
Acute, profound, painless loss of both central and peripheral vision in the
affected eye.
-
Marked visual field defect (test by confrontation).
-
Afferent pupillary defect (test by swinging flashlight).
-
Fundus: arteriolar attenuation, cherry red spot, optic nerve pallor.
-
Note: total retinal destruction begins within 90 minutes of total occlusion - many
patients don't present until several hours after onset; prognosis is extremely poor.
Treatment (usually not effective but should be attempted).
-
Keep the patient lying flat.
-
Massage globe: 15 seconds of firm digital pressure, followed by 5 seconds of sudden
release, repeat over a 10 to 15 minute time frame.
-
Acetazolamide 250 mg x 2 by mouth, as a one time dose.
-
Have the patient breathe into a paper bag; increased CO2 acts as a vasodilator and may
increase perfusion.
-
If temporal arteritis is a possibility (i.e., patient older than 55 along with other
symptoms consistent with the diagnosis), begin high dose pulse steroids (1 gm
Solumedrol
IV q12 hours followed by 100 mg Prednisone by mouth daily). Obtain an erythrocyte
sedimentation rate (ESR).
-
MEDEVAC is appropriate (but not emergent).
Acute Glaucoma
Etiology.
Angle closure (also referred to as narrow angle glaucoma in some references). The
cause is an anatomic predisposition in some patients, whereby the peripheral iris/cornea
interface is narrowly separated and prone to blocking and closing off flow of aqueous
humor fluid from the anterior chamber into the trabecular network (i.e. the drain). This
causes an acute rise in intraocular pressure.
Signs and symptoms:
-
Red, painful eye
-
Cloudy cornea due to increased intraocular pressure.
-
Mid-dilated, fixed pupil
-
Variable afferent pupillary defect
-
Steamy vision, halos around lights
-
Decreased visual acuity (variable)
Management (DO NOT pharmacologically dilate a patient that is
suspected to have this condition or with a known history of this condition in the past).
-
Check intraocular pressure with a Schiotz tonometer or a slit lamp with applanation
tonometer.
-
MEDEVAC urgently; initiate treatment pending transport.
-
Topical beta-blockers x 1 dose (Timolol 0.5%, Levobunolol 0.5% or Betimol 0.5%).
-
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor x 1 dose (Acetazolamide 250-500 mg IV or 250 mg by mouth).
-
Osmotic agent (Isosorbide 50 to 100 orally or
Mannitol 1-2g/kg IV over 45 minutes. Note:
500 cc of Mannitol 20% contains 100 grams of Mannitol may be repeated every 6 hours.
-
Pilocarpine drops 1-2% Q 15 minutes x 2, use one drop of Pilocarpine in the fellow eye x
1 to reduce the possibility of bilateral angle closure.
-
Recheck intraocular pressure in one hour after performing instructions (c) (f),
and every hour thereafter until the MEDEVAC is completed.
-
If pressure has been reduced to less than about 30mmHg, continue Pilocarpine 1% QID OU.
If intraocular pressure is still more than 30mmHg consider the following regimen (in
addition to Pilocarpine 1% QID OU).
-
Topical beta-blocker 1 gtt every 12 hours to the affected eye, and
-
brimonidine tartrate (Alphagan) 1 gtt every 12 hours to the affected eye, and
-
apraclenidine (Iopidine 0.5%), 1 gtt every 8 hours to the affected eye, and
-
systemic carbonic anhydrase inhibitor (Acetazolamide), 250 mg PO QID or 250 mg IV QID.
Retinal Detachment
Etiology
-
Retinal hole or tear
-
Exudative (tumor, inflammation)
-
Tractional (inflammation, diabetic)
Signs and Symptoms
Management
Hyphema
The etiology is blunt or penetrating trauma.
Signs and symptoms:
Management
-
Strict bed rest with HOB elevated to 30 degrees. This allows for the blood to settle
inferiorly and clear the visual axis.
-
Apply Fox shield (not a patch) to protect eye.
-
Dilating drop (Atropine 1% TID, or Scopolamine 0.25% TID). This prevents movement of the
iris, which could contribute to more bleeding
-
Sedatives,
analgesics (NOT
ASA), antiemetics and
laxatives as necessary to prevent
Valsalva.
-
MEDEVAC urgently (pressure rise, rebleeding, corneal staining, and retinal detachment
can be serious complications).
-
Check for sickle cell disease.
-
Consider Amicar 50 mg/kg PO q4h (maximum 30g/day) for 5 days after initial episode or
rebleed.
Orbital Cellulitis
Etiology
-
Extension from sinusitis (esp. ethmoid)
-
Orbital trauma
-
Extension from dental infection
-
Occasionally results following the spread of a skin infection (i.e. preseptal
cellulitis)
Signs and symptoms
Management
Immediate, high dose, parenteral antibiotics:
MEDEVAC urgently
If available obtain sinus series, once hospitalized patient will also require orbital
CT with coronal sections and possible ENT evaluation.
Preseptal cellulitis
Etiology
Signs and symptoms
-
Periorbital edema and erythema
-
In contrast to orbital cellulitis, extraocular motility is full, vision is usually
normal, no afferent pupillary defect (APD) or proptosis is present.
Management
-
If mild, Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
(Augmentin) 250 mg PO TID or Dicloxacillin 250 mg PO
BID, or Amoxicillin 250 mg PO QID, or
Azithromycin (Z-pack), 5 day supply.
-
If severe or <5 age, IV antibiotics as described for orbital cellulitis.
-
Warm compresses.
-
Tetanus toxoid as needed.
-
Follow closely for evidence of the development of orbital cellulitis, or localized
abscess that would merit incision and drainage (I&D).
Corneal Ulcer
Etiology. Bacterial, fungal, viral, acanthamoeba, contact lens
Signs and symptoms:
-
Red, painful eye
-
Focal white opacity in corneal stroma with overlying epithelial defect
-
Photophobia
-
Decreased visual acuity (variable)
-
Discharge can vary from none, to thin mucus or occasionally purulent.
Management
-
MEDEVAC urgently.
-
Obtain conjunctival culture with cotton swab prior to starting antibiotics.
-
Remove contact lens if present, culture lens case and lenses in contact wearers.
-
Begin frequent, topical, broad-spectrum antibiotics; (there is no role for oral or IV
antibiotics). A good of antibiotic would be Ciprofloxacin (Ciloxam 0.3% solution), 1
gtt every 30 minutes until ophthalmologic evaluation. If the ulcer is >3mm in
diameter and in the visual axis, consider fortified antibiotics (requires pharmacy
services); Ancef 50mg/ml, 1 gtt every 1 hour, and Gentamycin 14mg/ml, 1 gtt, every 1 hour.
-
Cycloplegia (Cyclogyl 1% top TID, Scopolamine 0.25% top TID).
-
Oral pain medication as needed.
Blowout Fracture
Etiology. Trauma to globe or orbital rim
Signs and Symptoms
-
Periorbital edema and ecchymosis.
-
Restricted extraocular movement (especially upgaze).
-
Hypesthesia of infraorbital nerve.
Management
-
Erythromycin (250 mg po QID) as prophylaxis for orbital cellulitis.
-
MEDEVAC within a week of injury - surgical repair usually delayed 72 hours to 10 days
and dependent upon persistence of restriction of ocular motility (diplopia), or
enophthalmos (due to loss of orbital volume).
-
Will need ophthalmologic evaluation and orbital CT with coronal sections.
Other Conditions
Anything other than minor ocular conditions should be referred urgently for
ophthalmologic evaluation. Direct voice, email, or priority message communication with an
ophthalmologist can be invaluable in obtaining assistance when you are in a remote
location. If in doubt, refer.
Cycloplegic agents
-
Tropicamide 1% - 6 hours duration.
-
Cyclogyl 1% to 2% - 12 hours duration.
-
Homatropine 2% - 24 hours duration.
-
Scopolamine 0.25% - 48 hours duration.
-
Atropine 1% - 14 days duration.
Topical antibiotics
-
Ointments last 1 to 2 hours, are more soothing, provide more lubrication, but blur
vision up to 1/2 hour.
-
Solutions last 15 to 30 minutes, do not blur vision.
-
Low toxicity antibiotics. These are good first line drugs for minor ocular
conditions.
References
-
Wills Eye Manual, Office and Emergency Room Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Disease, R.D.
Cullom, c. 1994, J.B. Lippincott, ISBN 0-397-51380-1.
-
General Opthalmology, Appleton and Lang, D. Vaughn, c.1992, Appleton & Lange, ISBN
0-8385-3115-6 or 0-891-2084.
Chapter revision by CDR Peter Custis, MC, USN, Ophthalmology Specialty Leader,
Naval Medical Center San Diego, San Diego, CA, (1999).
Approved for public release; Distribution is unlimited.
The listing of any non-Federal product in this CD is not an
endorsement of the product itself, but simply an acknowledgement of the source.
Operational Medicine 2001
Health Care in Military Settings
Bureau of Medicine and
Surgery
Department of the Navy
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Washington, D.C
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Operational
Medicine
Health Care in Military Settings
CAPT Michael John Hughey, MC, USNR
NAVMED P-5139
January 1, 2001 |
United States Special Operations Command
7701 Tampa Point Blvd.
MacDill AFB, Florida
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