(1)  Introduction

Be logical and timely. The rate and magnitude of blood loss determines the urgency.  Make an initial evaluation rapidly. Resuscitative measures should be initiated concomitantly if the patient is hemodynamically compromised. An important complication of military, casualty medicine (burns, head injury) is GI bleeding (stress gastritis and ulceration).

(2)  History

Documentation of the history should initially be brief, if the patient's condition requires urgent treatment.  History often tells the acuteness versus chronicity of the bleed and whether the hemorrhage is from an upper or lower GI source.  Hematemesis implies an upper GI source.  The location of pain can be helpful. Worsened pain and acute GI bleed should infer trauma to the intestine, pancreatitis, or hematobilia. Important questions include symptoms, use of alcohol, aspirin, NSAIDs, anticoagulants, abdominal trauma, prior Gl bleeding, family history of GI bleeding, recent nonintestinal GI bleeding, previous blood transfusions or reactions to them (and religious preferences precluding administration of blood products).

(3)  Documentation, the physical exam, and ancillary studies

Always document signs indicative of major gastrointestinal hemorrhage.  Supine hypotension or resting tachycardia, positive "tilt" test, peripheral vasoconstriction, altered mental alertness, and oliguria.  Look for a nasopharyngeal source, evidence of portal hypertension, gross blood, and abdominal surgical scars.  Lab tests include a CBC, platelet count, and a PT/ PTT.  Plain x-rays of the abdomen are helpful only if a viscus perforation is suspected.  All GI bleeders should have a nasogastric tube (NGT) placed.  A positive aspirate (significant amount of fresh blood or "coffee grounds (guaiac +), indicates upper GI bleeding and mandates gastric lavage.  The amount of lavage to clear the NGT roughly quantifies the magnitude of the bleed.  Regardless of a positive or negative NGT aspirate, if lower vs. upper bleed is uncertain, leave the tube in for 12-24 hours to detect a rebleed or duodenal reflux of blood.  Anoscopy and proctoscopy should be done if there is bleeding per rectum.  Advanced tests for precise localization are referral procedures.

(4)  Differential Diagnosis

If hematemesis is present, rule out nasopharyngeal and pulmonary sources.  Rule out a coagulopathy. The NGT helps differentiate upper from lower GI bleeding.  A negative NGT does not rule out an upper GI bleed. The rectal exam is also important.  Melena indicates the bleed is proximal to the ileocecal valve.  Bright-red blood per rectum almost always infers a colonic or anal source (rarely above the ligament of Treitz).  Maroon stools can be either from a rapid small bowel transit or a colonic bleed.  Hemorrhoids do not imply etiology.  Only if you see the blood coming from a hemorrhoid can you reasonably assume it is the source of bright red blood per rectum (follow up is still necessary).  Use guaiac cards.  Black stools can result from Pepto-Bismol, iron, charcoal, and spinach.  Red stools can result from beets.

(5)  Emergent Treatment

Two large bore IV lines, #14-18 gauge placed peripherally, are usually sufficient). Type and cross (T&C) three or more units of whole blood or packed RBCs.  These are preferable if the situation warrants.  Saline, lactated Ringers, or Hespan can be substituted until blood products are available.  In extreme situations non-crossmatched O negative blood may be used.  Transfusion therapy should at least keep pace with an actively bleeding patient.  If the patient's mental status is depressed consider endotracheal intubation. 

H2 blockers like Cimetidine 300 mg every 6 hours, Ranitidine 50 mg TID, or Famotidine 20 mg BID should be given. These medications and sucralfate 1 gm PO QID can be given for prevention of stress-related mucosal damage.  These drugs are well tolerated. Short term, H2 blockers can cause changes in cardiac output, hepatitis, and cytopenias. Drug interactions with theophylline, phenytoin and anticoagulants are not uncommon, especially cimetidine.

(6)  Referral

Any patient with brisk, gross bleeding or less dramatic blood loss with either a sharp drop in hematocrit or whose vital signs show postural change, must be admitted.  Immediate referral to a general surgeon is important.   If a surgeon or endoscopist is not available, transport the patient as soon as possible to the nearest facility that has these type of specialists.

(7)  Assessment Algorithm for Acute GI Hemorrhage 

(8)     Reference Tables               

Initial review by CAPT W.M. Roberts, MC, USN, Emergency Department, Naval Medical Center San Diego.  Subsequent review by CAPT H.R. Bohman, MC, USN, General Surgery Specialty Leader, Naval Hospital Camp Pendleton, CA. (1999).