Sometimes tents or other regular shelters are not available. In summer, if the weather is mild, you may need protection only from insects. In the winter, however, you cannot stay in the open for long periods unless you are moving. In case of emergency, you must know how to protect yourself from the effects of the weather.

If natural shelters such as caves or rock ledges are available, they should be used. If they are not, a temporary improvised shelter must be built.

The type of shelter to be built depends on the equipment and materials available. By the proper use of materials available, some sort of shelter can be built during any season of the year. In open terrain a shelter can be built using ponchos, canvas, snow blocks, or other materials. Snow caves, snow trenches, snow houses, or snow holes may be built in the winter. In the woods, a lean-to is normally preferred to other types of shelter. In cold-weather areas, nature provides you with the means to prepare a shelter. Your comfort, however, greatly depends on your initiative and skill at improvising.

PONCHO SHELTERS

The simplest type of shelter can be made by pulling the poncho over your sleeping bag. For additional comfort, various types of shelters and lean-tos can be made by attaching your poncho to trees, tree branches, or poles.

To build a one-man shelter from one poncho, spread the poncho on the ground, hood side up. The hood opening must be tightly closed by adjusting and tying the drawstrings. The poncho is raised in the middle of its short dimension to form a ridge, with the stake out at the corners and sides. Snow, sod, or branches are used to seal the side and one end of the shelter to provide additional protection from the wind and to retain heat.

Figure 10-1. One-man shelter.

A two man shelter can be made from two ponchos. Spread the ponchos on the ground with the hood side up and the long sides together so that the snap fastener studs of one poncho may be snapped into those of the other poncho, The ponchos are raised where they are joined to form a ridge. The shelter is then staked out at the sides and corners. A third poncho may be snapped into the other ponchos to form a ground cloth.

Figure 10-2. Two-man shelter.

LEAN-TO SHELTER

The lean-to shelter is built in forested areas and is made of trees and tree limbs. A poncho, a piece of canvas, or a parachute, in addition to boughs, may be used for covering. Depending on the number of people to be sheltered, two types of lean-tos (single and double) are built. Boughs should be laid in the shelter like overlapping shingles (the same as on a live tree).

Figure 10-3. Single lean-to.

To save time and energy, use two trees the right distance apart and sturdy enough to support the crosspiece. If suitable trees are not available, use two forked poles or build two A-frames to hold the crosspiece. A large log is laid at the back for added height. Stringers about 3 meters long and 10 centimeters in diameter are then placed 45 centimeters apart from the crosspiece over the top of the log in the rear. Available coverings, ponchos, boughs, and so forth are then placed on top of the stringers. A double lean-to is made by building two single lean-tos facing each other with the fire in between.

Any kind of an open fire can be used to heat the lean-to. The best kind for a large lean-to is the log fire. Precautions must be taken to prevent the fire from burning too hot and burning down the shelter. A fire reflector may be built of green logs or poles to reflect the heat into the shelter and to serve as a windbreak to keep the fire burning steadily.

TREE SHELTERS

In wooded areas, the tree-pit shelter furnishes temporary protection. Select a large tree with thick lower branches and surrounded with deep snow. Enlarge the natural pit around the tree. The walls and floor are lined with branches and boughs. Try not to disturb the snow that may be on the branches.

An emergency shelter for one man can be built by cutting down a coniferous tree at a point about 1 meter from the ground.

Figure 10-4. Tree-pit shelter.

After the tree has fallen, the branches on the underside are trimmed away and the cut material used for insulation on the ground.

WIGWAM

A wigwam or tepee can be built in wooded areas by tying a number of poles near the top and spreading them at the bottom to form a large circle. This framework is then covered with ponchos, a parachute, or any other suitable material.

SNOW WALL

In open terrain with snow and ice, a snow wall may be built for protection from strong winds. Blocks of compact snow and ice are used to build a windbreak. Be careful not to get covered up by drifting snow, which may accumulate on the lee side of the wall.

Figure 10-5. Snow wall.

SNOW TRENCH

A snow trench provides shelter quickly. It is built by burrowing into a snowdrift or by digging a trench in the snow and making a roof of ponchos or ice and snow blocks supported by skis, ski poles, or snowshoes. Boughs can be used for covering the roof and for the bed. Figure 10-6 shows one method of roofing over the trench by leaning snow blocks against each other.

Figure 10-6. Snow trench.

SNOW CAVES

A snow cave can be used as an improvised shelter in the open areas where deep and compacted snow is available. Normally, a suitable site can be located on the lee side of a steep ridge or riverbank where drifted snow collects, and it is wind packed.

The tunnel entrance must give access to the lowest level of the chamber. This is the bottom of the pit, where cooking is done and equipment is stored. The snow cave must be high enough to provide comfortable sitting space. The sleeping area must be on a higher level than the highest point of the tunnel entrance, where there is warmer air.

The roof must be arched for strength so that drops of water forming on the inside will not fall on the floor. This water will follow along the curvature of the roof and sides, glazing over the walls when frozen. The roof must be at least 30 centimeters thick. The size of the snow cave depends upon the number of men that will occupy it. A large cave is usually warmer and more practical to build and maintain than several small caves.

The shape of the snow cave can be varied to suit conditions. When the main cave is built, short side tunnels are dug to make one- or two-man sleeping rooms, storage space, latrine, or kitchen space.

In building the snow cave, locate a deep snowdrift at least 3 meters deep. Newly fallen, powdery, or loose snow should not be used. The depth of a snowdrift may be tested with a sharpened branch or young tree about 4 meters long, or with the ski or shorter ski pole. The entrance must be chosen carefully so that wind will not blow into the cave or block the entrance by drifting snow. The entrance should be built so that it is about 45 degrees from the downwind side. A small tunnel is burrowed directly into the side of the snowdrift for 1 meter. A chamber is excavated from this tunnel. Excavation is done to the right and left, so that the length of the chamber is at right angles to the tunnel entrance. Personnel doing the digging will become wet from perspiration and from the snow inside the cave. They should wear the minimum amount of clothing to ensure that they have a change of dry clothing when finished.

The cave can be heated with the one-burner gasoline stove or with candles. The fires should be put out when personnel inside the cave are sleeping, thus reducing the danger of fire, asphyxiation, or carbon monoxide poisoning. If the weather is severe and it is necessary to have a fire while sleeping, an alert fire guard must be posted in each cave. The ventilation holes must be inspected every 2 or 3 hours to ensure that they have not become clogged by snow or ice.

To ensure that the cave is warm, the entrance should be blocked with a rucksack, poncho, or snow block when not in use. All available material such as ponchos, cardboard from ration boxes, brush, and boughs should be used for ground insulation.

Walking on the roof may cause it to collapse. At least two ventilator holes are used, one in the roof and one in the door. A ski pole can be stuck through the roof ventilator to clear it from the inside. Extra care must be taken to keep air in the cave fresh when cooking or heating. The entrance should be marked by placing a pair of skis, or other equipment, upright on each side of the entry way.

Building a snow cave requires practice. Large shelters are usually more efficient for squad-size units and larger units. The most critical decision is when and where to stop and build the shelter.

Figure 10-7. Snow cave.

INDIVIDUAL SNOW HOUSE

If you are alone and have need of a shelter quickly, you can build a small individual snow house. It is box-shaped, and the only building materials needed are snow blocks. Cut snow blocks 40 by 40 by 80 centimeters. Lay them on edge to a length of 2.5 meters and a width of 1 meter. Build the walls up to a height of about 1 meter. When you have the walls built, make an A-shaped roof by leaning together pairs of blocks. Fill in the ends with snow blocks and chink all the crevices with soft snow. Cut a hole in the end of the leeward side large enough to crawl into. When you are inside, make one or two small holes near the top for ventilation. Block up the end with a snow block or with your rucksack.

Figure 10-8. Individual snow house.

SNOW HOUSE OR IGLOO

An igloo makes an excellent shelter in snow and glacier areas when other materials are not available or when the snow is so hard that it can be cut into blocks. Cracks in the igloo are then covered with loose snow. To increase the head room and to prevent water droplets from forming inside the igloo, the corners of the blocks may be cut off to form a round and smooth interior.

A shelter may be built over the entrance in the same manner as the igloo, and it should be 1 to 2 meters long and about 1 meter wide and 1 meter high. This shelter provides more protection and warmth inside the igloo and a place to store equipment. Blocks of snow or other material may be placed at both the outside and the inside entrances of the tunnel for more warmth. Make a ventilation hole near the top and at the same height as the fifth or sixth row of snow blocks. The hole can be kept open by placing a ski pole or long stick into it and clearing it out as needed. The igloo is heated with a one-burner stove or with candles.

Figure 10-9. Snow house.

10-4. FOOD

The chances of finding different types of food vary in cold-weather areas depending on the time of year and the place. Shores normally are scraped clean of all animals and plants by winter ice. Food can still be found north of the timberline, even when such foods as mice, fish, and grubs are not available.

STORAGE AND PRESERVATION

If a large animal is killed or a large number of small game are found, you should store or preserve some of the meat for future use. Freezing is the best way to preserve fresh meat or fish. It may be necessary to protect your supplies from small animals. This can be done by hanging these supplies about 2 meters from the ground.

FISH

There are few poisonous fish in cold-weather areas, but some fish, like the sculpin, lay poisonous eggs. The black mussel may be poisonous at any season and is as deadly as strychnine. In cold regions do not eat shark meat; it is poisonous. In coastal streams and rivers, salmon moving upstream to spawn may be plentiful; however, their flesh deteriorates as they travel away from the coast, making them unfit to eat except in an emergency. A salmon that has been in fresh water long enough to turn a brilliant red is decaying and may be unfit to eat.

Coastal waters are rich in all seafoods. Grayling, trout, white fish, burbot, and pike are common to the lakes, ponds, and arctic coastal plains of North America and Asia. River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in the rivers, streams, and lakes.

Fish can be speared, shot, netted, hooked, caught by hand, or stunned by a rock or club. Fish hooks can be improvised from pins, pieces of wire, or any other metal object that can be bent into a hook. Pieces of meat, insects, or minnows can be used for bait. Some fish will nibble at any small object that hits the water. Cod will swim up to investigate strips of cloth or bits of metal or bone, and they are easily caught. A net can be made out of stout twine or from the inner strands of parachute suspension lines. These strands can also serve as fishing lines.

LAND ANIMALS

Deer, caribou, reindeer, musk-oxen, moose, elks, mountain sheep, goats, bears, and other such animals are found in most cold-weather areas.

Tundra animals include rabbits, mice, lemmings, ground squirrels, wolves, and foxes. Where there are trees, the porcupine is often encountered. The porcupine can be easily clubbed or shaken out of trees. Pick up a porcupine only after it is dead.

Hunting is better during the early morning or late evening when the animals are moving to and from feeding and bedding grounds and water. Large game such as moose and caribou should be shot just back of the front shoulder or, if the range is short and you are sure of your shot, in the neck. These large animals are fairly easy to stalk and kill, and their skins are also useful for survival. Bears should be shot just forward of the front shoulder to stop them or, if you are sure of your shot, in the neck. To successfully hunt these land animals you should know something of their characteristics:

• Caribou or reindeer are usually very curious. It is possible to attract them near enough for a shot by waving a cloth and moving slowly toward them on hands and knees.

• The technique of imitating a four-legged animal may also cause a wolf to come closer to a hunter.

• Moose may be found in heavy brush or around the shoreline of lakes.

• Mountain goats and sheep are cautious and hard to approach. They can be surprised, however, by moving quietly downwind while they are feeding. If possible, stay on higher ground than they are on.

Figure 10-10. Hunting land animals.

• Musk oxen leave cattle-like tracks and droppings. When alarmed, they group together in a circle with their heads facing out and remain in that position unless approached, then one or more bulls may charge.

• Bears are always dangerous. A wounded bear is most dangerous and should not be followed into cover. The polar bear is a tireless, clever hunter with good sight and an extraordinary sense of smell. Be careful that you don't become the hunted instead of the hunter.

• Rabbits often run in circles and return to the same place when they are frightened. A running rabbit can sometimes be stopped by whistling. Snares made of wire and placed on small game trails, arranged so that the animal will place his head through the loop, are an excellent means of catching rabbits.

• The quick-kill method can be used on most small animals and sometimes on larger animals after they have been shot and are on the ground. The method is simple and consists of cutting the animal's throat with a sharp knife. This system not only kills the animal but bleeds him at the same time.

Figure 10-11. Snaring a rabbit.

SEA ANIMALS

During winter and spring, sea mammals — seals, walruses, and polar bears — are found on the frozen pack ice and on floes in open water.

Seals are hard to approach but can be stalked. Keep downwind and avoid sudden moves. A white camouflage suit will help. Advance only when the animal is sleeping. Do not eat the liver of the bearded seal, because its high vitamin A content may cause you to be sick.

Walruses are found on pack ice and must be approached by boat. Because of its large size and boldness, the walrus is one of the most dangerous animals in the arctic.

Polar bears are found in almost all arctic regions but rarely appear on land. Avoid them if possible. If it is necessary to kill one for food, do not eat the liver. The liver is high in vitamin A, which may cause you to be sick. Never eat any bear meat unless it is cooked; it is always diseased.

BIRDS

The breeding ground of many birds is in the arctic. Ducks and geese build their nests near ponds on the coastal plains during the summer and provide an important source of food. Grouse and ptarmigan live in mountainous terrain and brush-covered areas in arctic and subarctic areas. Sea birds may be found on cliffs or small islands on the coast. Sea birds, ravens, and owls are useful for food.

In winter, owls, ravens, grouse, and ptarmigans are the only birds available. Ptarmigans and grouse are easily approached and are very tame. Although they are hard to locate because of the protective coloring, they provide a good source of food because they can be killed with a stone or a club.

PLANTFOOD

Most plants that grow in cold regions can be eaten. The water hemlock and the baneberry are the only poisonous plants. The water hemlock is one of the world's most poisonous plants. It can be recognized by where it grows, always in wet ground, and by the following characteristics: a hollow, partitioned bulb at the base of a hollow stem, spindle-shaped roots, and a foul odor, which is very noticeable in the root and bulb. The water hemlock is abundant in marshes near southern beaches and around marshy lakes in interior river valleys. It is never found on hillsides or dry ground. The baneberry is normally found on hillsides or in forested bog areas. Some mushrooms are poisonous and should not be eaten. Although the cold-region areas have many kinds of berries that are edible, most will not be available in the winter.

Figure 10-12. Water hemlock.

Figure 10-13. Baneberry.

10-5. USEFUL KNOTS

A rope is only a limp coil of hemp or nylon. It is useful only when you are able to attach it to itself or another object. The six basic knots described below will fit all your needs for tying rope together or onto equipment or personnel.

THE HALF HITCH

The half hitch is used to secure the end of a rope to some other object or to secure other knots.

Figure 10-14. Half hitch.

THE OVERHAND KNOT

The overhand knot is used to make a knotted rope for a handline or to temporarily whip the end of a rope to keep it from unraveling.

Figure 10-15. Overhand.

THE SQUARE KNOT

The square knot is used to tie the ends of two ropes of equal width together. The knot should be secured by tying a half hitch on each side of the knot. If properly tied, the square knot will not slip or jam. Be careful to follow Figure 10-16 or you may end up with a "granny knot," which can slip and jam.

Figure 10-16. Square.

THE CLOVE HITCH

The clove hitch is the most useful of the hitches. It can be used to tie the end of a rope to a post or eye, or it can be used to secure the middle of a rope without using the ends.

Figure 10-17. Clove hitch.

THE DOUBLE SHEET BEND

The double sheet bend is used for tying two ropes together of different width.

Figure 10-18. Double sheet bend.

THE BOWLINE

The bowline is used to form a loop on the end of the rope that will not slip.

Figure 10-19. Bowline.

Remember the qualities of a good knot: it is easy to tie, it does not jam and become hard to untie, and it does not slip when weight is put on it.